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347 BCE
Mental Discipline Theory
This theory is rooted to the works of Plato and Aristotle. This theory states that the mind is like a muscle, the more it is used, the stronger it is. Learning becomes a matter of making the brain stronger. -
322 BCE
Association Theory
Association Theory comes from the ideas of Aristotle. This theory suggest that learning is obtained when connections are made when thinking about time, features, and opposition. Association Theory is made of three types of connections: contiguity, similarity, and contrast.This was influential in education until the 16th century. -
1450
Printing Press invented
by Johan Gutenberg. -
1500
Visual Alphabet Books
Associates letters with pictures. -
1570
A Method of Comfortable Beginning for all Unlearned, Whereby, They May bee Taught to Read English in a Very Short Time, with Pleasure
This was written by John Hart. In this publishing, he introduced a phonic approach to reading, with diacritical marks for letters. This was so each letter would have one sound. This was not a favorable approach during this time. -
1582
The Shortest Way to Reading
Written by Valentin Ickelsamer, a German teacher. Students began so isolate speech sounds, then letters. This was the beginning of Synthetic phonic method. -
Brinsley
Brinsley changed the method of learning the sounds of the alphabet to combining initial consonants with short vowels. -
Blank Tablet Theory
Tabula Rasa Theory presented by John Locke. This theory has connections with Associationism and he believed that everyone was born with a blank mind and we learned through through interactions. It took emphasis away from internal influences to external. This was compared to the Mental Discipline Theory. -
The Orbis
Written and illustrated by Johan Amos Comenius. First illustrated reading book that emphasized on word method. It also focused on decoding and comprehension. This book included an illustrated page of everyday (back then) objects, with a number by it. On the following page, the number would have the English and Latin word of the picture. Also included a picture alphabet with connection to phonics. This was the start of analytic phonics, breaking down known words into individual sounds. -
New England Primer
Colonial America reading books that included religious text and the alphabet method. The spelling method was also introduced in these primers starting with basic words to more advanced as you move through the book. The primers included scripture versus, morality and mortality contents, prayers, and religious catechism. Rote memorization with emphasis on oral reading was the key to learning with primers. -
Period: to
Unfoldment Theory
Learning was done naturally. Three important theorist during this time was Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. Rousseau wrote Emile and believed that educators should teach what children want to learn. He also thought learning should happen later in life. Pestalozzi believed children needed more teacher guidance and created a child-center learning environment. Froebel emphasized on learning through play. He also coined the word Kindergarten. -
American Spelling Book
Published by Noah Webster. This was the most widely used textbook during this time. It contained three books that introduced spelling, reading, and grammar. -
Old Blue-Back Speller
Also written by Noah Webster. This contained the alphabet method and synthetic phonics. Gave insight for teachers on how to pronounce words in order to create an "American" dialect. Included the alphabet, syllables, word list, verses, fables, short easy stories to more complex, and Patriotic passages. Teachers focused on eloquent oral reading so that they can speak about Patriotism in every day conversations. -
Word Blindness
Reading difficulty was called Word Blindness, thought to be a congenital defect. -
McGuffey Readers
Created by W. H. McGuffey. First to create a guided reading series (basal). These series provided teachers with a way to teach reading using the phonic and/or word method. This took reading instruction away from the alphabet method and used diacritical marks like John Hart. This reading series contained simple comprehension stories and questions to teach a point. The upper grade series contained more difficult literature passages and higher standards. -
Horace Mann
Advocated for synthetic phonics from Prussian schools. He took his ideas back to the United States. He placed emphasis on letters, names, phonics, and word teaching. This method started to gain in popularity. -
The Sentence Method
Presented by George L. Farnham. Whole sentences were taught first, and then the break down of the words in the sentences. His idea was that comprehension would be done internally while reading eloquently. This method failed to produce independent readers. -
Synthetic Method
Idea presented by Rebecca Pollard. She stated that the synthetic method should teach sounds to letters without guessing what the word was. She also advocated looking at pictures and listening to songs to help learn. Some of her ideas can be traced back to The Orbit. The goal of synthetic phonics was for the reader to be able to pronounce words by themselves without guessing first. -
Story Method
Created by then President of Harvard University, Charles W. Elliot. Gave insight on the use of true literature in schools. He created the Story Method. This was a combination of literature and sentence method. Story Method includes short literature passages where children would memorize and dramatize. This method was the start of patterned language and predictable text. -
Period: to
Behaviorism
Theory that learning is made through observable changes. Behavior changes is the result of an outside stimulus.Behaviorism stems from Mentalism and Frued's Psychoanalytic Theory. -
Edmund Burke Huey
Advocated for the Synthetic, Analytic, and Analytic-Synthetic Method. Synthetic Method included learning letters, then sounds, and finally,words. Analytic Method taught children to see whole words and sentences. Analytic-Synthetic Method combined these two approached. Huey was an advocate for the Sentence method. He also founded the Activity Approach taught by Francis Parker. This taught reading while talking. Students would create their own sentences and practice oral reading. -
Connectionism
Thorndike presented the four laws of Connectionism. Law of Effect, also known as "Principle of Reinforcement" states that if a positive response occurs, they will repeat the action. Law of Readiness states that learning occurs when tasks start out as simple and slowly progress to harder task. Law of Identical Elements states that learning is easier when the student can draw on previous knowledge and connect to new knowledge. Law of Exercise states the more practice, the better they are. -
First Standardized Test
The first standardized test cause for a shift in reading practices. Silent reading was now the dominant focus during this time. Readers could be measured objectively now with this test. This proved that teachers had a wide range of learners in their classroom and caused for remedial reading practices. -
Gray Oral Reading
William S. Gray founded the Gray Oral Reading Test, used to classify reading behaviors while reading. -
First Reading Disability journal published in the United States.
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First Instructional Method
Schmitt aimed to improve nonreaders abilities, including phonics -
First Reading clinic opens at UCLA by Grace Fernald.
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Classical Conditioning Theory
Presented by Pavlov. He noted the observable changes with the salvation of his dog when seeing food. He would ring a bell, present the food, and the dog would salivate. Eventually, the dog would salivate when hearing the bell. This theory makes connections to student's positive and negative experiences in school. This was then used to explain behavior in school children. -
Period: to
Constructivism
Theory that learning was achieved by the individual, not the outside factors. Prior knowledge is paired with new knowledge, to create a natural learning process. Children learn by establishing hypothesis and testing out their idea. Important theorist during this time include: Dewey, Bartlett, Rosenblatt,Durkin, Flavell and Brown. -
Deficiencies in Reading Ability: Their Diagnosis and Remedies
Written by Clarence T. Gray was the first university textbook devoted to remedial reading. -
Creating a literate society
Reading goals were now to motivate students in order to create a literate society. Silent reading was used for creating meaning of text. -
Theory of Cognitive Development
Created by Piaget. He wanted to figure out how children process information as they grown up. He noted that biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration play a role in child's thinking. He also created Stages of Cognitive Development that range from birth to adult. These stages are: Sensorimotor, Preparation, Concrete operational, and formal operational. These stages are used by teachers while planning developmentally appropriate lessons. -
Dick, Jane, and Sally
Main characters of children's reading material from 1930s to the 1960s. -
Theoretical foundation of basal readers
Gray went to the National Commission on Reading stating that basal readers should include: word perception, comprehension, assimilation of knowledge and evaluation of author's purpose. These became the theoretical foundation of basal readers. -
Period: to
Theories of Literacy Development
Theories that tried to define specific reading abilities and behaviors. Theorist such as Piaget, Morphett& Washburne, Holdaway, Frith, Shall, Morrow, and Taylor contributed to Literacy Development -
Maturation Theory
Created by Morphett and Washburne. They believed that reading should not occur until the age of 6 1/2. Reading was not to be taught until this age because that is when they believed children were developmentally ready to learn, and being taught to read earlier than that would damage their ability to read. This theory was later ruled out by other research findings. -
Zone of Proximal Development
Theory by Vygotsky. Also wrote, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. ZPD is when you start off dependent on another and slowly work your way to independence. -
Phonic is removed from teaching
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IRI
Informal Reading Inventories advocated for poor readers. -
Learning Disabilities started
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DRA
Reading lessons contain five steps, similar to basals. Readiness for reading, directed silent reading, comprehension check, oral reading, and follow-up. -
UNESCO- Three categories of reading
United Nations Economic and Social Council reported that reading instruction is broken into three categories: Synthetic method, Analytic Method, and Analytic-Synthetic Method. These are similar to Huey's. -
Phonic-last resort
Whole word identification was the primary focus during this time. Gates (1951) thought reading should be natural, and students spent 3-4 years without reading fluently. -
New Basic Readers
presented by Gray and others as the new basal reader series. This was the introduction of We Look and See,Dick, Jane, and Sally. These guides contained sight words and gradually advanced for higher grades. Middle school basal contained authentic literature. This is still the foundation of today's basal readers. -
Publication of the Reading Teacher
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Operant Conditioning Theory
Presented by B. F. Skinner. Used Thorndike's research and added the effects of positive and negative consequences.This theory was also known as programmed learning. Teachers used behavioral objectives to teach and scaffold their positive reinforcement until the point in which it was not needed as often. Shaping was also used in this theory. Teachers and parents were to provide positive reinforcement for small task, but then expect the child to advance in their practices for additional praise. -
Substrata Factor Theory
Presented by Holme as a landmark contribution to reading comprehension. When reading, students use speed and comprehension as skills and process text information. -
"What Research says to the Teacher in Reading."
Written by Robinson that encourages teachers to ask higher-level questions. -
Why Johnny Can't Read and Why
Written by Flesch about the Look-Say method. A method that advocates to sound out words to recognize unknown words. This book gained phonic instruction credibility and stated the lack of reading progress was due to the word method. -
Whole-Word Approach
Whole-Word approach was being used in school with little instructional strategies to identify unfamiliar words. Word perception was still the main approach. -
Bloom's Taxonomy
Created three domains of reading: cognitive, affective, psychomotor. This was made to create higher order thinking in readers. -
William S. Gray
Believed in reading the text, beyond the text, and in-between the lines was crucial to comprehension. He also believed in an Eclectric approach, that was similar to Analytic-Synthetic Method. -
Teaching Children to Read
Written by Gray and Reese. Used the term Guided Reading and mentioned how it fits in with basal readers. Stated that teachers should follow four lesson steps of: guided reading, word analysis, vocabulary, and follow-up activities. -
Backwardness in Reading
By Vernon is a visual perception problem that results in reading disability. It is designed to remediate visual perception difficulties and introduced a treatment program. This result was not viable to researchers. -
Language Experience Approach
Teachers and students participate in the reading process together by using repeated reading, sight words, spelling, and phonics. LEA covers reading, writing, speaking, and listening. This can create a bridge from spoken to written language. -
Inquiry Learning
John Dewey was the first Constructivist. He developed Inquiry Learning based on the Unfoldment Theory. The goal of this learning style was to create active members of society. Students needed to be involved in highly-motivating, collaborative learning classrooms. Students would create hypothesis, test, and reflect on their learning using this theory. -
Whole Language
Whole language is a natural approach to learning where it is child-centered, and uses authentic literature for reading and writing. Students can then apply their reading skills with real literature to draw meaning to the text. Text selection should be meaningful to engage readers and writers. -
Language Experience
Word and letter approach by Francis Parker. -
Teacher basals include phonics
Analytic phonics was incorporated in basal readers during the 1960s. These teacher basal readers contained outlines for stories and phonic instruction. Workbook pages allowed students to fill in the missing word of a sentence for phonic practice. -
Round-Robin
Primary form of fluency instruction. Teacher would ask students to read aloud a particular part of the text, then call on another student. The purpose of this instruction was to gain fluency while silently comprehending as another student is reading. -
Adult test and state certification
In the 1960s, state certification was introduced for reading teachers. Also, the first reading diagnosis test for adults was designed. -
Psycholinguisitc Theory
This is the difference between linguistic behavior and psychological process. Readers use cues to help read text. Goodman came up with: syntactic, semantic, graphophonic cues in which readers read text based on meaning, patterns, and grammar structures. Educators need to see that reading errors can be indicators to reader's response to their thinking. Overall, positive reinforcements and meaningful material should be implemented in this theory. -
Learning Disabled termed
Samuel Kirk suggested to adopt the term Learning Disabled or Learning Disabilities in the 1960s. -
Schema Theory
Bartlett coined the term Schema in 1932. Since then, it has been used to describe how we organize our thoughts. The more existing information we know, the easier learning is and easier connections can be made. Students can either add existing information into their schema, change their schema, or remove old schema for new information. -
Individualized Reading
Emphasis on students picking their reading material and self-pacing. The teacher would meet in a small group setting to check on student progress. -
Modified Alphabet
26 letters and 44 sounds. -
Race for Education
During the John F. Kennedy administration. Wanted to become a nation of high-achieving in schools. This was brought on by the race to space. -
Programmed Reading
Became the reading management system. Instruction was broken down into smaller tasks, or sub-skills. -
Reading Research Quarterly
Was the most important source of academic research. It was supported by IRA -
Orthon-Gillingham Approach
This approach is still being used in LD programs. It is an intensive grapheme-phoneme orientation where letter-sounds are practiced, then the words. -
Reading: A Psycholinguistic Guessing Game
Written by Goodman. -
Jeanne Chall
Advocated for Code Emphasis, a phonic approach, and Meaning Emphasis, a sight word, holistic approach. She studied the two approaches and found that phonic was key for development and the Holistic approach was only beneficial in the earlier years of reading. She published, Learning to Read: The Great Debate, which goes over the two different approaches. -
First Grade Studies
One of the first federally funded program involving the comparison of different approaches of word learning. This approach was acceptable just as long as some phonic instruction was being used. Did not prove to be superior over any other method. This study also advocated for proper teacher preparation. -
Fry
Established a faster reading formula to determine reader's level. -
L.B. Daniels
Categorized reading into: saying, understanding, and reflective thinking. -
First Grade Studies and Learning to Read: The Great Debate
Called for phonic instruction to be taught, but none was more superior to others. -
National Right-to-Read Program
Introduction to NCLB, where the Federal Government hopes to eliminate reading problems. -
Morpho-phonemic
Venezky introduced an approach that explains the impact of meaning on pronunciation. -
Stephen Corder
He identified five major psychological concepts to education.These included: individual differences, maturation and physical growth, motivation, learning theory, and socialization theory. Along with these concepts, he added to Chile's emphasis and added: Linguistic, Modified alphabet, responsive environment, programmed learning, individualized reading, language experiences, Eclectic.In conclusion with his findings, he noted that the teacher is responsible for creating a method best for students. -
Project Literacy
Focused on word perception and perceptual development. -
Understanding Reading: A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Reading and Learning to Read
Frank Smith stated that reading is learned and just seeing the words is not enough. This revolutionized the reading field. -
Sullivan Programmed Readers
Readers learned by filling in the blanks in workbooks. -
RMI
Goodman and Burke established the Reading Miscue Inventory based off of Goodman's Reading Model. RMI has the instructors view the reason for the miscue, and use that as a tool to understand their thinking. -
John Downing
Did not favor a particular method, rather favored the idea of decoding and meaning was more important. He suggested three universal dimensions of general education: child centered versus curriculum centered, formal versus informal, and individualized versus mass teaching. -
Reading Mastery
Word recognition was growing as the program suggest teaching sounds slowly, then move into blends and hand signals. This was not a helpful program for those who were ready to read stories. -
Automatic Information Process
Laberge and Samuel's Theory of Automatic Information Process was an important milestone in fluency. Suggested that reading needs to be at an automatic level in order for the brain to have enough room to process the information. When reading is labored, the brain uses too much effort on figuring out the words and not the text meaning. -
Public Law 94-142 Passed (Education for All Handicapped Children Act)
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Metacognitive Theory
Metacognitive Theory is when a reader thinks about their own thinking. Engaging prior knowledge before reading is key for literacy development. Educators need to set clear learning goals and model proper skills, and give positive reinforcement when teaching. -
Goodman and Page
Developed 89 characteristics of reading programs. They then, grouped theses characteristics into nine categories for instruction. These characteristics were then used to create a matrix of 27 different combinations for reading instruction. Popular combinations from this matrix include: Teacher-controlled, Reader-controlled, and Program-Controlled. -
Teaching Comprehension
Written by Pearson and Johnson -
Dyslexia: Deficit in Reading or Deficit in Research
Valtin pointed out the improper reading research on disabilities. Since then, quality research has been conducted. -
Transactional/ Reader Response Theory
Louise Rosenblatt had the idea that everyone has different reading experiences. Readers have Efferent and Aesthetic responses to text. Efferent is when you can draw conclusions based on facts. Aesthetic is when conclusions are made based on feelings. -
Reading Recovery
Early intervention approach first used in New Zealand, and then in the United States. Students would use Elkonin Boxes to write the sounds of a word. This emphasized writing listening to the individual sounds of a word. Students would then use these words in sentences. -
Theory of Literacy Development
Holdaway presented this theory after the Maturation Theory. This theory states that children learn to read while watching their parents read. This encouraged parents to read to children and to provide a literacy-rich environment. Holdaway believed that children read naturally from this. They would see parents read, share reading, child would do this independently and then seek for approval. -
Stage Models of Reading
These theorist believed that as children develop as readers, they take on more strategies to use during reading. Reading was thought to be a continuous process. These stages included: Pre-Alphabetic, Partial alphabetic, full alphabetic, and Consolidated alphabetic. -
Interactive-Compensatory Reading Model
Created by Stanovich. Readers who have a hard time processing words need to use other techniques. This encouraged teachers to use more than one strategy. -
Neurological Impress Method
Chomsky's method that referred reading while listening. This can help with comprehension if they are not good readers. -
Period: to
Whole Language Movement
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Emergent Literacy Theory
Marie Clay came up with the term, Emergent Literacy in 1966. Since then, this theory focuses on developing listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Children move through stages when they are developmentally ready, not just because of their age. Educators are encouraged to support their literacy development through modeling and positive interactions. -
Reciprocal Teaching
One of the two important comprehension routines of this time. -
Becoming a Nation of Readers
By Anderson and Colleagues mentioned children needing to learn the alphabetic principal and segmentation of sounds. Discussed that students become better readers by simply reading. -
Question-Answer Relationship
One of the most important comprehension routines of this time. When reading, readers are conscience of their thinking. -
Content Area Themes of the late 80s.
Emphasis on strategies and activities, teachers and students should view content area as a multi-subject focus, and meaningful textbooks should be used for comprehension instruction. -
Failure to Learn to Read: Formulating a Policy Problem
by McGill-Granzen, who urges teachers to be involved in policy issues. Wanted teachers to become advocates for the struggling readers. -
Four-Block Literacy
Established by Cunningham and colleagues. This model uses Making Words as it's key block. This helps readers with spelling and decoding skills. -
Beginning to Read
Published by Marilyn Jager Adams who recommended that phonic instruction should be balanced with whole word. She was an advocate for phonemic awareness. -
Balanced Instruction gained legitimacy in literacy instruction. Authentic text along with activities are being balanced for instruction.
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Reading Foundation of Instruction
Dole, Dutty, Roechler, and Pearson founded the reading foundation. They provided comprehension strategies based on meaning. These include: prediction, generating questions, determine importance, drawing inferences, and self-monitoring. -
Stage Theory
Henderson developed word knowledge stages into: Prephonic, Semiphonetic, Letter name, Within word pattern, Syllable juncture, and Derivational constancy. Spelling is memorization and conceptualization. -
Stages of Word Recognition
Ehri has four stages: Pre-alphabetic, partial alphabetic, full alphabetic, consolidates alphabetic. -
Guided Reading: Good First Teaching for all Children
Written by Fountas and Pinnell. This book shifted the view of teaching literacy into small groups. During this small group, children are grouped based on academic level. Then, they read with the goal of advancing to more difficult text. Finally, the students are regrouped based on the next academic goal. -
Stahl and Hayes
They examined 13 models of teaching reading. They narrowed down the models and graded them by: description of model, defined in reading, description of classroom, research based, and further research needed. Some models that they graded included: task-analytic, child-centered, and holistic. -
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
NICHD established NRP that would assess research-based knowledge. NRP raised fluency awareness and made it one of the five instructional areas critical to reading. -
Boyle and Peregoy
Listed five criteria that define the literacy scaffold model. Applies reading and writing activities, make use of language, provided model, supports students in comprehension, and regroup when necessary. -
Invented Spelling
Gillet and Temple created the stages of developmental patterns in spelling. These include: Prephonemic, unreadable, pre-reading, phonemic spelling-relationship, and transitional spelling. This guide can be used by teachers to see where their students are at on this scale, and can see where they are headed. -
National Reading Panel
First building block of reading-phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. -
SIG and IRA
Special Interest Group (SIG) of International Reading Association (IRA) emphasized on strategies and activities for content area. Strategies are the methods of teaching and activities are done to reinforce learning. -
Reading First Initiative
Was funded by NCLB given to schools for scientific based reading instruction materials in grades K-3. This programmed explicit phonic instruction. -
NCLB
Held schools responsible for preparing students to read and create highly effective teachers. This bill was heavily relied on standardized testing and causes issues among school corporations. -
Neurobiological Approach
Hamm and Pearson said that this approach sharpens and deepens out understanding of comprehension -
Engagement Theory
This theory suggest that learning occurs when students are intrinsically motivated to read. In order to do this, teachers need to supply a variety of text, hands-on activities, and allow for student choice. This theory makes connection with the Metacognitive theory to build prior knowledge before initiating in text comprehension. -
Situation Model
Created by Pearson that is based on the Construction-Integration Comprehension Model by Walter Kintsch. The Situation Model integrates different types of knowledge (world, linguistic, disciplinary_ and the reader uses their own knowledge to build a mental model. This is then processed into long-term memory. -
References
The contents of this timeline contains information taken from the following books:
Fresch, M. J. (2008). An essential history of current reading practices. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association. Sadoski, M. (2004). Conceptual foundations of teaching reading. New York, NY:
Guilford. Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2012). Lenses on reading: An introduction to
theories and models (2nd Edition). New York: The Guilford Press.